LIGHT

LIGHT

Key Words: Lighting Plan, Types – Direct, Indirect, Diffused and semi-indirect, Classification – Filament and Fluorescent; Fittings and shades, Uses, General lighting, Task lighting and Accent lighting

Lighting plays a key role in creating the right atmosphere within an area. It should be decorative as well as functional; it should contribute to the character and atmosphere of a room and be adequate for general and particular purposes, without causing glare or appearing flat and dull. To achieve this in any given room the direction and quantity of lighting have to be chosen for the right effect and function. There normally has to be a balance between direct and indirect or direct and diffused lighting system.
In case of direct lighting, the fittings throw the light onto surfaces below, generally producing over-bright areas with hard shadows, resulting in glare and highlights on polished and other smooth surfaces.
For indirect lighting, the fittings are concealed and the light is thrown on to the ceiling and walls, from where it is reflected into the room. No glare or hard shadows are produced but the lighting tends to have a ‘flat’ appearance and is very much les economical in use.
When the fittings are completely enclosed or concealed as with some globes, ceiling panels or lay lights, the light is diffused as it passes through the glass or plastic fitment. Diffused lighting is also glare-free and produces a ‘flat’ appearance. It is possible to have some light passing through a diffusing bowl and some reflected from the ceiling; this is semi-indirect light.

A) Direct lighting               B) Indirect lighting
C) Diffused lighting               C) Semi-indirect lighting
Refer to figure on next page.

The amount of light required in an area depends on the function of the area and on the predominant color used in the furnishings or floor coverings and in areas where strong, clear light is required the overall decorative lighting may be supplemented by purely functional lighting.
In any establishment management is not only concerned with the aesthetic aspect of lighting but also with low energy costs and ease of maintenance and the type of electric lamps need consideration.


Characteristics of filament and fluorescent lamps:

Filament lamps

1. Vacuum-filled or filled with inert gas, fine filament inside heated to incandescence,

1. Coiled coils have higher operating temperature and more glare than same wattage single coil,

1. Average life 1000 hrs, long life 2000 hrs, life reduced if not suspended from cap, by vibration, wrong voltage or variations in mains pressure,

1. Bayonet fitting to 150 watts, screw cap above 150,

1. Low in cost, different size suitable for many types of fittings,

1. Are tubular shape or architectural lamps 30-56cm long,

1. Give direct or diffused light of varying intensity,

1. Can produce sparkle and highlights,

1. Give warm light with little distortion of color,

1. Generate a considerable amount of heat,

1. Will soil and stain walls and ceilings,

1. Are easily replaced,

1. Particularly suitable for pendant lights,

1. Wall brackets, table and floor standards, ‘spot’ lights,

1. Used with many different types of fittings and shades,

1. Poor efficiency compared with fluorescent lamps.

Fluorescent lamps

1. Vacuum-coated with fluorescent powder of various colors,

1. Ultraviolet radiations fall on the powders to give light,

1. Wide choice of colors available,

1. Some tubes have reflectors inside,

1. Hot cathode lamps start instantaneously, last longer but are more difficult to install as require high voltage,

1. Average life of hot cathode lamp 5000 hrs, life cold, 15000 hrs,

1. Variation in length of tube 15 to 244 cm long, large areas can be lit from a single point,

1. Initial installation cost higher than filament,

1. Running costs lower,

1. Give 3 times as much light as filament lamps of equal wattage,

1. Give diffused lighting with flat appearance, textural interest and highlights can be provided by supplementing with filament lamps,

1. Operating temperature is one-fifth lower than filament lamps so not the same degree of soiling,

1. Give good overall general lighting with no shadows,

1. Particularly suitable for cornice lights and obscure corners,

1. Not same demand for shades as for filament lamps and used most frequently with plain plastic or glass covering the whole length of the tube.

Low energy bulbs are available which, although more expensive to buy, do offer considerable savings in energy costs. Energy-efficient compact fluorescent lamps are steadily replacing ordinary light bulbs. They consist of a small fluorescent tube bent into a convenient shape to fit into the conventional lamp holder and its design permits an elegant range of fittings.
Low-voltage down lights are another means of saving energy and are particularly suited to public areas. They give positive pools of light, enabling certain features of design to be accented and they have a low heat emission.
Reflector type candescent (filament) lamps are used extensively for feature and decorative lighting. These are usually 100 or 150 watt rating and have silvered or aluminized inner reflectors. Some of these have a pressed glass front and can be used equally well for indoor or outdoor use, provided the lamp holder itself is weather-proof. In tungsten iodine lamps used for floodlighting, there is no blackening of the lamp envelope and hence it can be reduced to size.

FITTINGS AND SHADES
To satisfy the guest and management light fittings should be:
     well positioned,
     emit light in direction and quantity required,
     pleasant to look at whether lit or unlit,
     well made, durable, mechanically sound and electrically safe,
     not prone to overheating,
     such that lamps can be replaced easily,
     easily cleaned.

The amount of light emitted is measured in *lumens. The minimum lighting requirements are as follows:
Restaurant                    7 lumens/929 sq. cm
Bathroom                    10 lumens/929 sq. cm
Stairs                         10 lumens/929 sq. cm
General office                    15-20 lumens/929 sq. cm
Casual reading                    15 lumens/929 sq. cm
Sustained reading               30 lumens/929 sq. cm     

* Lumen is the unit to measure the luminous flux of the light i.e. movement of light.

USES OF LIGHTING
Lighting may be used as an important tool in interior decoration for various purposes, such as; to

• reveal features of construction,


• conceal space by areas in shadow,


• create impression of space,


• create suitable atmosphere in room or area,


• act as focal point,


• accentuate color and texture,


• highlight pictures, statues, floral decoration etc.


• introduce accents of color by fittings and shades.     

Cornice lighting gives downward light, lights the wall and emphasizes ceiling height.
The entrance hall to any establishment should look inviting and the lighting should be in keeping with the character and atmosphere of the place. During the daytime an entrance can appear dull and dim when the guest comes in from outside.
In large areas a chandelier or other pendant type fitting may give general lighting, or there may be overall lighting of the ceiling by means of cornice lights when the light will be reflected from the ceiling which should therefore be light colored. The wall brackets or pelmet type fittings may also provide general lighting of the area.
If height permits, a false or suspended ceiling may be constructed of various materials, and it may be possible to have glass panels or recessed down lights in the ceiling. An advantage of a false ceiling is that the lamp fittings are concealed from view. Mirrors on the ceiling reflect light and give the impression of greater height and may provide an interesting reflection of the light fittings. An advantage of a false ceiling is that the lamp fittings are concealed from view. Mirrors on the ceiling reflect light and give the impression of greater height and may provide an interesting reflection of the light fittings.
Recessed down lights and wall lights provide some degree of general illumination without the appearance of brightness and may be used as local lights when necessary. In case of wall lights the light is, however, limited to the perimeter of the room unless there are pillars to which brackets may also be attached. Portable fittings are useful and providing there are sufficient sockets available these may be place in different positions in the room.
There are many places in which food is eaten and the atmosphere will vary accordingly. In places where there is a cafeteria service or a quick turnover it is usual for there to be high degree of illumination, especially at the counters and tables, and in these circumstances fluorescent lamps, pendant fittings or panel lights may be used.
In the restaurant of a hotel, subdued lighting is more usual, especially at night when table lamps or even candles may be thought necessary. Higher general lighting is normally used for banquets and luncheons but, even so, fluorescent lighting is not often the only source of light as it provides no highlights, and due consideration should be given to its effect on the color of food.
Subdued lighting may be required in the corridors but gloom should be avoided, and guests should be able to see the room numbers clearly. The space between the light fittings along a corridor should not be greater than 1 ½ times the distance they are above the floor. Stairs should be well lit to prevent accidents, and lights can be set into the stair itself or along the wall just below the handrail. If the lights are overhead, the fittings should be placed at each end of each flight of stairs.
Bedrooms do not necessarily require general lighting but there should be adequate light in the different parts of the room. There should be bedside light for each bed, as well as dressing table light. Bedside lights may be table standards or mounted on the wall, but in each case they should be sufficiently high to light the book being read and not the pillow, top or side of the bed. It is good idea to have two-way switches worked from the door and the bed. Dressing table lamps should light the face and not the mirror; two lamps are very suitable or one long fluorescent lamp above the mirror.
In bathrooms there should be vapour proof fittings, and the position of the light by the mirror should be such that the face is lit adequately. The switches should be either outside the room or of the cord type.

LIGHTING CHOICE
General lighting provides overall or background light and should be used in every room.
A ceiling pendant is one of the most common types of light fitting, offering a variety of shade styles in materials as diverse as fabric, paper or metal.
Recesses or semi-recessed low voltage down-lighters spaced across the ceiling will give a good level of clear light. Depending on the type of bulb used, and the room, recessed down-lighter can spread light over a wide area or in a narrow beam.

Task lighting is designed to give concentrated, directional light over a small area and is used in conjunction with general and accent fittings. The type of task lighting depends on the activities.
A desk light with flexible arm is the perfect example, as it can be adjusted to provide light exactly where it is needed.
A reading lamp should be tall enough to shine on the pages of the book, but not into our eyes. A standard lamp positioned behind the reader is ideal.
Light for writing, sewing or any other hobby should be positioned so that it shines down on to the work. Rise and fall fittings are useful for this, especially if you tend to work at the dinning table.
Recessed strip lighting is useful for providing worktop light in a kitchen.

Accent lighting is used to show off plants, pictures, collections and interesting architectural features. There are many different types, which can be used to light objects from above, below or behind, or at an angle.
A narrow beam tungsten halogen down-lighter can be used to light a single handsome vase or a piece of china. As the lower part of the object remains in the shade, this method gives a dramatic floating effect.
Pictures are usually lit from above. An adjustable eyeball or ceiling spot, which will flood the painting with light but leave the walls around it in shadow, are both well worth considering, as well as the traditional brass picture light fitting.
A table lamp with a wide based shade will throw a pool of light on to the surface below it and in an attractive way to light a small collection or some framed family photographs.
Floor standing drum up-lighters can be positioned below large plants to create dramatic leaf patterns on the wall and ceiling. You can light objects on glass shelves very effectively by positioning a row of small tungsten halogen spot lights below the bottom shelf. Wall mounted up-lighters, wallwashers or tall standard lamp-style designs will illuminate the detail on an interesting cornice or ceiling.
Small floor up-lighters positioned behind a sofa or armchair will wash the walls with light and make the room seem larger.

Some examples for different types of lampshades are flower shaped shades, Victorian shades with a stem to fix on the wall, paper cone lamps, oriental lamp shades, decorative lamp shades, mock candle wall light etc.

FABRIC

FABRIC
ACETATE
Most acetate garments should be dry-cleaned. Some knits are washable. If laundering is indicated, use the following guide:

1. Hand wash in warm water with mild suds.


2. Do not twist or wring out the garment.


3. Do not soak colored items.


4. Press while damp on the wrong side with a cool iron. if finishing the right side use a pressing cloth.


5. Circular knits should be laid flat to dry.

Note: Acetate is adversely affected by acetone and other organic solvents, such as nail polish remover and perfumes containing such solvents.
ACRYLIC
Acrylic garments may be washed or dry cleaned.

1. When machine washing, use warm water setting and add a fabric softener during the final rinse cycle.


2. Machine dry at low temperature. Remove from dyer as soon as garments are dry.


3. Wash delicate items by hand in warm water. Static electricity can be reduced by using s fabric softener in every third or fourth washing. Gently squeeze out water, smooth or shake out garment and let dry on a non-rust hangar. Sweaters and circular knits should be dried flat.


4. If ironing is required, use moderately warm iron.

COTTON

1. Cotton can be easily laundered. It can withstand high temperatures (boiling water does not hurt the fiber).


2. Any good detergent can be used to wash cotton.


3. Chlorine bleach can be used safely on cotton whites. Use color safe bleach on dyed cottons.


4. Since cotton fibers are fairly inelastic cotton fabrics may wrinkle easily. And, fabric may need frequent pressing.


5. However, cotton fabric can be treated with a wrinkle resistant finish to create a more resilient fabric/garment. The label will tell you if this finish has been applied.


6. A higher heat setting is needed in the dryer to dry cotton. Cotton will take much longer to dry than less absorbent fibers.


7. Cotton can be ironed with a hot iron, and does not scorch easily

LINEN

1. Some linens are washable, while others are dry clean only. Be sure to check the label.


2. Washable household linen, handkerchiefs, and linen apparel can be washed easily and become softer with use.


3. White linens should be dried in the sun, if to help them to keep their whiteness.


4. Generally speaking, dry cleaning is recommended for drapery linens, upholstery linens and decorative linens.


5. Linen fabrics may need frequent pressing, unless treated for crease resistance. (Permanent press and soil release finishes are now being used effectively on 65% linen/35% polyester tablecloths, napkins and placemats.).

NYLON
Most items made from nylon can be machined washed and tumbled dried at low temperatures.

1. Use warm water and add a fabric softener to the final rinse cycle.


2. To minimize static electricity use a dyer sheet when machine drying.


3. Remove articles from the dyer as soon as the tumbling cycle is completed.


4. If ironing is required, use a warm iron.

POLYESTER
Most items made from polyester can be machine washed and dried.

1. Use warm water and add a fabric softener to the final rinse cycle.


2. Machine dry at low temperature setting and remove articles as soon as the tumbling cycle is complete.


3. If ironing is needed, use a moderately warm iron.


4. Most items made from polyester can be dry-cleaned.

POLYOLEFIN (OLEFIN)
Most items can be washed or dry-cleaned.

1. Most stains can be readily be removed by wiping, using lukewarm water and detergent.


2. If fabric is machine washed, it should be line dried or tumbled dried with gentle or no heat.


3. Do not iron.

RAYON
Most rayon garments should be dry-cleaned, but some types of fabric and garment construction are such that they can be hand or machine washed. For washable items, use the following as a guide:

1. Use mild lukewarm or cool suds. Gently squeeze suds through the fabric and rinse in lukewarm water. Do not wring or twist the article.


2. Smooth or shake out the article and place on a non-rust hanger to dry. Rayon sweaters should be laid flat to dry.


3. Press the article while damp on the wrong side with the iron at a moderate setting. If finishing on the right side is required, a press cloth should be used.


4. Between wearings, rayon articles may be pressed with a cool iron.

SILK
Only pre-washed silk is washable. Read the label!

1. Dry cleaning is generally preferred, since laundering detergent and dyes in other clothes may adversely affect silk fabric.


2. For washable silk, follow the care instructions carefully.


3. For items without linings and without embellishments attached, careful handwashing is permissable, with mild soap and lukewarm water.


4. Chlorine bleach should never be used on silk.


5. For long-time storage, silk should be sealed against light, air and insects.

TRIACETATE

1. Pleated garments are best hand laundered. Most other garments containing 100% triacetate can be machine washed.


2. If ironing is needed, a high temperature setting may be used.


3. Articles containing triacetate require little care due mainly to the fiber's resistance to high temperature.

WOOL

1. Give wool garments a 24-hour rest between wearings. Hang on shaped or padded hangers, leaving lots of space. In general, wool fibers will shed wrinkles and return to their orginal shape


2. Empty pockets, remove belts and hang with closures zipped and buttoned.


3. Fold knits.


4. Brush wool to remove surface soil. Use a damp sponge for knits and finer fabrics.


5. Refresh wool garments quickly after wearing or unpacking by hanging them in a steamy bathroom. Moisture from the steam will remove wrinkles.


6. If wool gets wet, dry the garment at room temperature away from heat. If there's a nap, brush with the nap.


7. Remove spots and stains promptly.


8. Keep moths away by storing wool with fresh cedar blocks.


9. Dry clean once a season(or when stained), and especially before storing.


10. Always steam when pressing wool. Use the wool setting. Avoid pressing wool totally dry. When possible, press on the reverse side of the fabric. When necessary to press on the right side, use a press cloth to avoid a shine. Lower and lift the iron, don't slide it back and forth. Prevent imprinting inside detail by placing a piece of brown paper or tissue paper under folds, seams or darts.

FABRIC

FABRIC
Fabric are used in a great variety of ways throughout an establishment, and may be chosen for their decorative value, for their comfort, warmth or coolness, their protective qualities, their durability and even for hygienic reasons.
Basically, fabrics are made from fibres which may be natural-cotton, linen, wool and silk being the most frequently used natural fibres, or manmade, for example, rayon, nylon, teryiene and acrilan.  
NATURAL FIBRES
            Of the most frequently used natural fibres, cotton and linen are of vegetable origin, while silk and wool are of animal origin.
Vegetable fibres Cotton  

1. is the most frequently used natural fibre, and is obtained from the seed of the cotton plant. The length of the fibre varies from 1.5 cm-5 cm, and the longest fibres comes from the West Indian and Egyptian cotton plants.


2. Cotton fibres are flat and ribbonlike, and have a natural twist which aids the spinning and makes a strong thread.


3. Cotton fibres are good conductor of heat, but they have a slight hairiness and the air held between the "hair" is a bad conductor, so cotton materials have a slight feeling of warmth, and this may be increased when the material is brushed or teased since more air is then held.


4. The hairiness of the fibre accounts for cotton material being unsuitable for polishing glass, as linters or "bits" are left on the surface, and for materials soiling more easily than ones made from smoother fibres, e.g. linen.


5. Cotton has little resilience so creases occur in the fabrics made from it, and cotton yarn used for the pile of carpets soon has a flattened appearance.


6. Mercerised cotton is produced by treating the yarn or fabric with caustic soda, under conditions where the fibres are stretched. Mercerisation results in smoother, more rodlike fibres which have a gloss or sheen, and it gives cotton a greater affinity for dyes and improves its strength.

Linen :-  is obtained from the stem of the flax plant, and the fibres vary between 1/2-1 m in length. The length of the fibre enables a fine, strong yarn to be spun.
The fibres are smooth, straight and almost solid, and these factors account for the chief differences between cotton and linen fabrics. The smoothness of the fibres gives good dirt and abrasion resistance, so linen fabric being cool to the touch. The smoothness and the straightness of the fibres give linen its lustre, which can be increased by mercerisation, when its strength and dye affinity are also increased. The solidity of the fibres makes linen much heavier than cotton.


Jute, ramie, hemp and sisal

1.  are also natural fibres of vegetable origin, the first three coming from the stems of plants and the last from the leaves of a plant, but they are not used in fabrics to the same extent as cotton and linen.

Kapok

1. is obtained from the seed of the kapok tree. The fibre is smooth, light and lustrous. It is used for the filling of pillows and cushions.

Animal fibres Wool

1. normally means the fibre from the fleece of the sheep, but fibres from other animals, e.g. horse, camel, llama, and goats are also used.


2. Most wool is the yearly growth from the living animal, that is, fleece or virgin wool, but "skin" or "pulled" wool may be obtained from the bodies of dead sheep, and remanufactured wools may be obtained from used wool.


3. Wool fibres vary in length from about 4-40 cm and they also vary in diameter, some being very much finer than others.


4. They have a natural crimp or wave, and this gives wool its elasticity and resilience, enabling it to resist crushing, and making it particularly suitable for carpets and upholstery.


5. The fibres are not smooth but have overlapping scales which enable air to be held between the fibres, and woollen material to feel warm.


6. Wool cannot be dyed to the same standards of uniformity or fastness as vegetable and man-made fibres, and unlike these it is attacked by moth. Wool can be mothproofed, but care must be taken to see that the proofing withstands any cleaning process.

Silk

1. is obtained from the cocoon spun by the cultivated silkworm, in the form of long filaments which may be on an average 274-456 metres long.


2. The cocoon may consist of up to 3 Km of filament, but this cannot be unwound continuously. The filaments are smooth and tubelike, with no irregularities and the beautiful lustre of silk fabrics is due to these properties.


3. Silk is stronger than cotton ( i.e. it has greater tensile strength ) ; it is elastic and resilient and so it does not crush easily. It is, however, weakened when wet, and it disintegrates in sunlight. All silk materials have elegance but due to their expense, their use is normally confined to luxury establishments.

MAN-MADE FIBRES
Regenerated fibres Rayon

1. The term "rayon" often covers viscose, acetate and cuprammonium fibres, but while viscose and cuprammonium rayons have many properties in common, they differ considerably from rayon acetate.


2. Viscose rayon filaments consist of pure regenerated cellulose obtained from wood pulp or cotton linters.


3. The basic properties of viscose rayon can be modified during manufacture and a number of modified rayon fibres are available.

Synthetic fibres             Synthetic fibres may be grouped according to their chemical composition, for example:

• Polyamide fibres, e.g. nylon


• Polyester fibres, e.g. teryiene


• Acrylic fibres, e.g. acrilan


• Polyvinyl fibres, e.g. saran


• Polyolefin fibres: polyethylene, e.g. couriene , polypropylene, e.g. ulstron

 

1. Their individual names, however, prove confusing as different manufacturers give their own trade names to fibres of similar properties; thus Perlon is the German brand of nylon, and Dacron the American terylene. Most synthetic fibres are produced as continuous filaments which may be cut into staple form; these may, in some cases, be "bulked" to give a softer and warmer handle.

Fabrics constructionIn the manufacture of textiles there are several standard weaves, e.g. plain, twill, satin, huckaback, damask, pile, etc.
Plain weave In a plain weave, the weft goes over and under alternate warp threads, as in darning. Fabrics made in a plain weave are normally smooth, and their firmness will depend on the number of warp and weft threads per cm, that is, on the closeness of the weave. A close weave gives a strong cloth, but one which tears easily. The weight and appearance of plain weave fabrics vary enormously according to the thickness, character and closeness of the threads, none of which need be the same for warp and weft.
Twill weave In a twill weave, the weft threads cross the warp at different intervals in the different rows, so that a series of diagonal lines is produced on the surface of the fabrics. Twill sheeting, drill and gabardine are fabrics made in a twill weave.
Satin weave In a satin weave, there are fewer intersections of the warp and weft threads, and the intersections are uniformly distributed. The warp "floats" over, for example, four weft threads and forms the surface of the fabric, i.e. the fabric is warp faced.
Figures weaves Figures weaves are those which introduce a pattern into the fabric. The pattern may be introduced by combining two of the previously mentioned weaves, as in damask, or it may be introduced by the used of coloured threads additional to the foundation cloth, as in brocade or tapestry.
Pile weave In a pile weave, there are tufts or loops of yarn which stand up from the body of the cloth. The tufts or loops are extra warp or weft threads woven at right angles through the foundation cloth. These extra threads form the pile or surface thickness, and they may be cut or uncut. Patterns can be produced by combining cut and uncut piles. Velvet is a cut, warp pile fabric; turkish (terry) towelling is an uncut pile fabric and the pile is on both sides of the material; moquette may be either a cut or uncut pile fabric.









COMPARISON
     NATURAL FIBRES
Produced seasonally and stored until used. Vary in quality because they are affected by weather, . nutrients, insects or disease. Lack uniformity. Physical structure.depends on natural growth of plant or animal. Chemical composition and molecular structure depend on natural growth. Properties conferred on fabrics can be changed by yarn or fabric finishes. Only silk is available in filament.  Less versatile.  Fibres are absorbent. Not heat sensitive. Require fabric finish to be heat-set.


MAN-MADE FIBERS
Continuous production.  Uniform in quality  Uniform or made purposely non-uniform.  Physical structure depends fibre-spinning processes and -after treatments.  Chemical composition and .molecular structure depend on starting materials.  Properties of fibres can be changed by varying.sminning solutions and spinning conditions.  Fibres can be any length.  Versatile, changes can be made more quickly.  Most have low absorbency (except rayon and acetate).  Most are heat sensitive (except rayon).  Most can be heat set (except rayon and acetate).

FURNITURE

FURNITURE

Key Words: Style, Design, Construction, Interior Decoration and Furniture, Types – Wooden, Wicker and cane, Metal and Plastic, Upholstery

In any organisation furniture covers a wide variety of different item, which will be in constant use and yet should retain their overall good appearance. People are seldom as careful of other people’s property as they are of their own and the handling of furniture by large numbers of people results in harder use than if one person was using it all time.
     
Therefore furniture needs to be:
     practical in design, size etc.,
     comfortable to use,
     sturdy to withstand considerable wear and tear (maintenance free),
     easy to clean and maintain,
and the price must be within the means of the establishment.

Whatsoever the type of an establishment is, each piece of furniture must be fit for its purpose and meet the requirements of the guests and the housekeeper. The following points should be considered when choosing individual pieces:
     type of guest expected and standard of accommodation,
     guests’ length of stay,
     atmosphere to be achieved, eg modern, ‘olde worlde’, and degree of comfort,
     shape and size of article in relation to the human body (science of ergonomics)
     durability of article,
     versatility and flexible for movement etc.,
ease of cleaning, eg castors on heavier items, shelves instead of drawers,
drawers with wipe-easy surfaces rather than lined, use of shelf-shine protective coatings,
standardization – items may be moved from room to room as required.

STYLE, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The style of any piece of furniture must tone in with the rest, though it will not necessarily be of similar design. Design and size are closely related to comfort, for inappropriate design or size may interface with the proper function or the serviceability of an article. The width of the seat and the shape of the back of the chair are important to its comfort: the height of the table and the chair in relation to each other, the height and depth of the wardrobe and the length and width of the bed are other examples. Ergonomics is important when considering shape and size of pieces of furniture in relation to the body.
Serviceability will also depend on design; shelves are probably more serviceable in the bedroom than drawers, and ‘built-in’ furniture can save space, labour, floor and wall coverings.
Flexibility and movability of furniture may be required in some places to enable the rooms to be put to different uses like extra bed, conversion of room to syndicate room for conferences, exhibitions etc., when not only has the room to be set up in the morning but also returned to normal in the late afternoon or early evening.
Easily cleaned furniture, because of its design and the material from which it is made, is of importance in all establishments but especially so when there is the possibility of a quick turn round of rooms (fast check in - check outs).

The method of construction and materials used will affect price, appearance and durability and the finished article should:
     be free from rough, unfinished edges or surfaces,
     be free from surplus adhesive,
     have the correct type of joints which fit well,
     stand firm on the floor and be rigid in use,
     if a cupboard or wardrobe, be stable and balanced whether empty or full,
     have drawers which run smoothly,
     have doors which fit properly and have stays to prevent them opening too far,
have sliding which run smoothly,
have efficient locks, catches, hinges etc,
have handles conveniently placed, comfortable to hold and free from sharp edges,
have castors with no sharp edges.

INTERIOR DECORATION AND FURNITURE AND OTHER FURNISHINGS
While floor and wall coverings are important features in the décor, furniture and other furnishings must not be forgotten. For a room to appear comfortable it must contain furniture that:
is functional
     does not lose the sense of space in a small room
     blends in width the rest of the decoration.
Wood used in furniture has a warm appearance and is normally regarded as a neutral, but certain pieces of furniture, owing to the color or grain of the wood, may be made to stand out from the rest; further contrasts in color and texture may be introduced by incorporating metals, glass, marble, plastics and fabrics as part of the furniture. Timber-look laminates are used extensively, especially for bedroom furniture, and are better in appearance than before. They are easy to clean.
Where the furniture is upholstered or loose covers are used, the same care should be taken as for curtains when choosing the color, pattern, and texture of the fabric. Sometimes the same fabric used is used for loose covers as for curtains and the best effect is probably obtained when only one or two pieces are covered in the same fabric. Textiles are very important to decoration as they provide a large part of the visual appeal and comfort in the room.
A bed is normally has a head rest or head board which in the case of a divan may sometimes be fixed to the wall instead of the bed itself. From a decorative point of view it should be of a suitable material, shape and color to fit in with the rest of the furnishings, while from a practical point of view it should withstand frequent cleaning and be high enough to protect the wall surface when the guest sits up in bed. The height of the bed is important to its appearance in the room.
A scheme for any room may be softened or accents of color can be introduced by the use of pictures, cushions, lamp shades, flowers and other accessories. Even such items as waste paper baskets and ashtrays should be considered with scheme as a whole. Pictures are frequently hung too high; they should normally be about eye level and there should be no cord or wire.

CLASSIFICATION OF FURNITURE
a. Wooden furniture
Wood is the traditional and oldest material for furniture, and pieces dating as far back as 1500 still survive. Therefore wooden furniture is mainly related to heritage properties. Today, there is wide choice of woods e.g. beech, elm, oak, mahogany, African walnut and many others.
Solid wood is not always the most suitable material for a particular piece, or part of a piece, of furniture, and plywood or laminated wood often meets the requirements of modern furniture better.
Plywood is made by bonding together an odd number of thin slices or plies of wood, 1-2 mm thick, so that the grain of one ply is at the right angles to that on either side of it and, since there is an odd number of plies, the grain of the two outside ones run in the same direction. Plywood is no cheap substitute for solid wood and is frequently used for table tops where stability is required, so eliminating much nailing and glueing of parts and enabling stronger and cheaper pieces of furniture to be made.
Solid wood can be bent. Windsor chairs and Bentwood chairs are example of furniture made of bent pieces of solid wood.
Lamin board, batten board and block board are more stable than plywood; they require no framing and are often used for wardrobe doors.
As wood is extremely absorbent it requires some protective finish to prevent it absorbing moisture, grease and dirt and to make cleaning easier. There are several protective finishes which may be given to complete the treatment of the wood. It is these finishes which determine the texture of the wood, its resistance to abrasion and the ease with which it can be cleaned.
Wood may be coated with paint when the natural appearance of the wood, i.e. grain, colour, texture, is lost. Paint provides a non-absorbent, easily cleaned finish in a wide range of colours, but it is easily scratched and has a poor resistance to heat. It is maintained by dusting, wiping with a damp cloth, or washing when necessary, avoiding the use of strong alkalis and coarse abrasives.

Care and maintenance of wooden furniture
1 Avoid scratching and knocking.
2 Wipe all spills as soon as possible.
3 Treat stains as soon as possible
4 Protect tops of dressing tables, coffee tables etc, with glass.
5 Examine for woodworm and treat accordingly.
6 Clean regularly:
     a) Dust daily, rubbing well to improve appearance.
b) If necessary, remove any stickiness or finger marks with damp cloth wrung out
of warm water and synthetic detergent, or water and vinegar.
c) Periodically apply a suitable polish but not to matt finish or it will lose its appearance and become glossy.

b. Wicker and cane furniture
Wicker and cane furniture is found in bedrooms and sun lounges of some places and is frequently painted. Unless well maintained it is liable to get out of shape and pieces of wicker can protrude and catch on clothes.
Cane may be used for seats and backs of chairs and is occasionally seen on headboards of beds. Both wicker work and cane can become extremely dusty and shabby looking, if not looked after.

Care and cleaning
1 Examine for broken and protruding pieces of wicker and cane and treat accordingly.
2 Clean regularly:
     a) Dust daily and use suction cleaner occasionally.
b) Wickerwork : periodically wash, using a cloth or soft nail brush, warm water and synthetic detergent, avoid using a great deal of water. Rinse and dry thoroughly. Polish with a liquid wax furniture polish.
    Cane : periodically wash. Rinse with cold salt water and dry thoroughly.

c. Metal furniture
Metals in the form of iron and steel have been used for many years for bedsteads and the springs of furniture, but these and many others, owing to their strength and ease of shaping, are being used increasingly in modern furniture for legs and frames of chairs and for tables which have tops of such heavy materials as marble or ceramic tiles. For example all the furniture at Amitabh Bachans’ house is made up of steel only. Other metals used in furniture are light alloys of aluminium, chromium and brass.
To prevent corrosion many metals require protective coating and this may be given by anodizing, electroplating, or the use of transparent lacquers, plastics, nylon, enamel, or other chemical coatings and their appearance may then be maintained by daily dusting or wiping with a damp cloth and washing if necessary.

d. Plastic
Plastics such as catalyst finishes, and synthetic adhesives which have considerable strength and the ability to bond together materials of differing compositions, are used extensively during the making of wooden and other furniture. Nylon and other plastic coatings are given to metal parts to protect them.
Laminated plastics are used for tabletops, dressing tables, bottoms of drawers, wardrobes and similar pieces of furniture where durability and ease of cleaning is required. Dusting or wiping with a damp cloth may maintain the appearance of laminated plastics. Abrasives should be avoided.

Reinforced plastics used for furniture are generally of the polyester glass fibre type, which can be moulded into seats and backs of chairs, and when used for the shell of upholstered chairs, the chairs are much lighter in weight. As laminated plastics, these are durable and very easily cleaned.

List of furniture in a hotel

2. Beds


3. Bedroom sofas


4. Coffee table


5. Writing table


6. Writing Chair


7. Luggage rack


8. Wardrobes


9. Headboard


10. Lounge area sofas


11. Restaurant chairs


12. Restaurant tables


13. Bar counter


14. Bar stools


15. Cupboards


16. Working tables


17. Linen & uniform exchange counter


18. Computer tables


19. Reception counter


20. Office tables


21. Office chairs with or without coasters


22. Revolving chairs


23. Mirrors


24. Frames and pictures


25. Cloakroom selves


26. Cloakroom resting beds


27. Convertible sofas cum beds

UPHOLSTERY MATERIALS
The upholstery coverings will to great extent determine the appearance, durability and cost of the piece of furniture and may be made from textiles, i.e. woven fabrics, hide or plastics. The covering required to be:

     Resistant to abrasion, snagging, creasing, soil and fading,
     Non-flammable,
     Non-shading,
     Pest proof,
     Easily cleaned
and have stretch recovery.

TYPES OF COVERINGS

1. Textiles- Cotton based, Satin, Velvet, Organza, net,  Corduroy, Leather

The textile coverings are the types of fibre, yarn and weave used in the production of the fabric.
Smooth fabrics, e.g. brocades and damasks of cotton, rayon or synthetic fibres show soiling more but hold dust less than the rougher, textured fabrics of wool, wool/nylon and wool/Evan mixtures. The latter have a warmer appearance, are less slippery and are less likely to show shine on clothes when sat on.
Cut and uncut pile fabrics, e.g. velvet, corduroy, or moquette made of wool, cotton, rayon or synthetic fibres are hardwearing but hold the dust, and cut pile fabrics may show shadowing.

The use of synthetic fibres, e.g. nylon, dralon etc, either alone or in the mixtures and blends increases the durability and ease of cleaning of many coverings.

b. Plastic - vinyl
There are many plastic materials available. They are more easily cleaned, equally hardwearing and less expensive than leather coverings. They are mainly vinyl.

Care and cleaning of upholstered furniture
Woven covering
1 Watch for signs of wear and deal accordingly.
2 Remove stains as soon as possible.
3 Protect, if, necessary, with arm covers, chair backs or loose covers.
4 Examine any wood work for signs of woodworm and treat accordingly.
5 If possible, keep out of strong sunlight.
6 If not in use, take precautions against moth.
7 Clean regularly:

1. Remove ash and crumbs daily.


2. Brush or use suction cleaner frequently, paying particular attention to the corners and sides of the seat.


3. Remove stains as appropriate.


4. Reverse seat cushions to even the wear.


5. Dust any show wood parts daily and polish periodically according to finish.


6. Shampoo periodically as for carpets.


7. Wash or dry clean any removable covers, when necessary.

Plastic coverings
The care of plastic covered furniture is as for woven coverings.
Clean regularly:

1. Dust daily and polish show wood parts particularly.


2. Brush or use suction cleaner if necessary.


3. Wipe with cloth wrung out of warm water and synthetic detergent when necessary. Dry thoroughly.

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FURNITURE-THE BASICS
Beds-      Single     85-100 cm width     190–200 cm length
     Double      135-150 cm width     190-200 cm length
     King-size 182 cm width     200 cm length          

Armchair      33-38 cm high seat     60-70 cm depth     48 cm width
Upright chair     42-45 cm high seat     42-50 cm depth     56 cm width

Table (writing) 28-33 cm above chair     70-84 cm above floor     
Coffee table      35-50 cm high

Wardrobes      60 cm min. hanging space in a single wardrobe
          90 cm min. hanging space in a double wardrobe
          56-60 cm depth to prevent rubbing of clothes when hanging
          175 cm height to accommodate full length
          The hanging rail should be firmly fixed and not too close to the top.

SOFT FURNISHINGS

SOFT FURNISHINGS

Key Words: Curtains, Pelmets, valances and swag; Net curtains, Blinds, Loose covers, Cushions, Bedspreads

Soft furnishings include curtains, loose covers, cushions, bedspreads and quilts (but not carpets), and they contribute greatly to the appearance of the room by bringing to it colour, pattern and texture. Some articles give protection and some, in addition, give warmth and comfort.

CURTAINS
Curtains are required to:
     give privacy where windows may be overlooked,
     darken the room when necessary,
     reduce heat effect and noise levels,
bring character and atmosphere to the room by their line, colour, pattern and texture.
Curtains are essential to the appearance of any window and almost any furnishing fabric can be used. The fabric should be chosen with regards to its resistance to fading and abrasion, its drape, dimensional stability and its flame resistance.
The fabric’s life expectancy is related to the amount of its exposure to:
sunlight,
airborne soiling.

Glass fibre, Terylene, acrylics, saran/viscose rayon blends and brightly coloured nulon fabrics withstand sunlight well.
In addition to fading by sunlight colour may be lost by:
     water spotting,
     washing,
dry cleaning,
abrasion.

Curtains are subjected to abrasion by:
     being pulled (drawn),
     being brushed against,
     rubbing along the floor, window frames and sills,
     being laundered or dry cleaned.

Curtains have a poor appearance if they do not hold their shape and drape well. Loosely woven materials tend to drop unevenly and with constant hand drawing the side sof the curtains may go out of shape.

Curtains need to be suspended from horizontal rod or traverse track which may be of metal, wood or plastic and which may be the width of the window or extended either side of the window frame. When the latter is the case the curtains can be drawn well back, so:
     giving width to narrow window,
     preventing the fading of the folds of material nearest the window,
     allowing more light into the room.

Curtains are fixed to the track by rings or hooks and drop to the floor or to the window sill where architectural aspects dictate, i.e. the shape of the window, radiators, or fitted furniture beneath it.
When choosing fabric for curtains it should always be seen in a large piece, hanging in folds as the pattern quite frequently looks different when lying flat. Curtain materials may be 80 cm, 120 cm, or 126 cm in width while some are much wider, and in order tat the curtains hang well, the minimum width of the curtain should be 1 ½ times the width of the rod or track.
Good curtains are usually lined and heavy curtains are often interlined. The lining enables the curtain to hang better, to be protected from dirt and sunlight, to give a uniform appearance from outside, and to afford greater insulation.
For public rooms it is best to buy as good a material as can be afforded; such fabrics as brocades, damasks, heavy satins, wild silk, printed linens, tapestries, velvets, novelty weaves and many others are suitable in the right settings.
For bedrooms, lighter material can usually be used and will probably be less expensive. Printed cottons and linens, chintz, damask, cotton and rayon satins and cretonne are some which may be chosen. In bathroom curtains are not necessary; colourful blinds may be used sometimes.
In some hotels bed-sitting rooms curtains are used to divide the bed area from the sitting area and in hospitals curtains separate beds (cubicles).
Curtains should never hang long without cleaning as dust and soot rot the fabric. They may generally be laundered or dry cleaned but lined curtains are better dry cleaned, as in laundering the lining and curtain may shrink at different rates.
Elements of a curtain are:

2. Lining fixed to the top.


3. Hem on top and bottom.


4. Drop


5. Sides


6. Rings or hook to fix the curtain to the track.


7. Draw cords or tapes for curtain headings.

Care and cleaning of curtains

1. Keep rod and track free from dust by the use of a wall broom or a vacuum cleaner attachment.


2. Shake often. Use vacuum cleaner attachment or brush occasionally to remove dust from the curtains.


3. Deal appropriately with repairs to linings, frayed edges and any difficulties with pulling, bent tracks etc.


4. Reverse the position of the curtain so that no part is continually exposed to the sun.


5. Have lined curtains dry cleaned; if unlined, and of a suitable material, have them laundered.


6. Solvent spray extraction machines may be used similar to the hot water extraction machines used for carpets.

General points to be remembered in connection with curtains:

• velvet and other pile fabrics should hang with the pile running downwards and they tend to hold dust and the smell of smoke.


• 15 to 30 cm, according to the type and weight of material, should be allowed for hem and turning on each curtain.


• When floor length, curtains should be 1.5 to 2.5 cm above floor level to prevent friction.


• The minimum width of any curtain should be at least 1 ½ times the width of the track, but for lightweight fabrics and certain curtain headings, twice or even more is necessary.


• Curtain headings may be of various types, e.g. gathered or fix pleated, by the use of special tapes and the appropriate hooks or rings by which the curtain is attached to the rod or track.


• The lining should be fixed to the top and the sides of the curtain, but the hem should not be attached.


• Hems and sides of good quality curtains should always be hand sewn and never machined.


• Heavy curtains may have weights or even a chain in the hems to improve the hang.


• It is necessary to use flame retardant fabrics in public rooms and for cubicle curtains in bed areas in hospitals and is advisable in all areas.


• Draw cords or rods may be used to facilitate the pulling of curtains and to prevent the marking of the fabric.

PELMETS, VALANCES, SWAGS
Pelmets and valances are decorative headings fixed over the top of the curtain to hide the suspension, to add decoration to the room, and in some cases to alter the apparent size of the window.

Pelmets are rigid, and may be of shaped pieces of wood or hardboard, which can be painted to match the décor of the room, or they may be of padded plastic or stiffened fabric to match or contrast with the curtains.

A valance is made of frilled or pleated material and hangs from a valance rail.

Swag is a draped finish to hide the curtain heading and is frequently completed with a tail.


NET CURTAINS
Net, sheer or glass curtains are made of translucent fabrics, frequently polyester net, which soften and diffuse the light as it passes through them. The curtains are used where windows can be overlooked, and are placed close to the window where they hold some of the dirt. They are held by rod or stretched plastic coated wire through the top hem; a drop rod is particularly useful for long net curtains, so that they can be lowered and changed easily without the use of a pair of steps.
With these lightweight fabrics the curtains should be two or three times the width of the window, and there should be sufficient weight at the bottom of the curtains to enable them to hang properly.
Net curtains become soiled very easily and require frequent changing, so it is essential that there are at least two sets per window.
It is wise to buy the best quality possible, as crispness and translucency are often affected by frequent washings in the poorer quality materials. Polyester net is to be recommended as it withstands sunlight and retains its appearance after frequent washings.
Other fabrics for sheer curtains include a net curtaining with a metallic backing, so that 45-65% of the sun’s radiation may be reflected. Aluminium or steel wire mesh in a variety of colours will drape and can be used as curtains or partition material, as can metal chain.


BLINDS
Venetian blinds are sometimes used in place of net curtains where windows can be overlooked and they can give protection from the sun to fabrics, paintings and objêts d’art. Venetian blinds require constant care and cleaning, cut off a great deal of light if attached to the window head even when raised and guests complain of their noise. Vertical slat blinds are also available. Many blinds of the roller type made of vinyl or similar are available; they may be brightly coloured and patterned. When used to give privacy instead of net curtains they tend to obstruct the light, but they are much easier to keep clean than Venetian blinds as they are easily dusted and may be taken down and wiped over when necessary.
For details on various types of blinds available please refer chapter 5 – wall covering.

Care and cleaning

1. Attend to badly hanging blinds.


2. Dust or wipe frequently.


3. Wash with warm water and synthetic detergent as often as required.

Austrian blinds are ruche fabric blinds. They are frequently used partially raised and if fully raised they form a decorative pelmet. Austrian blinds have gained in popularity in recent years, particularly in the public areas of hotels etc.
For further details please refer wall coverings.




LOOSE COVERS
Loose covers are detachable covers fitted over upholstered chairs, stools, etc. they can give a clean, fresh appearance to a room, but the constant need to straighten them and to keep them well maintained means that some establishments no longer use them.
Loose covers may be used to cover shabbiness, to protect the original upholstery and to change the appearance of the room (e.g. winter and summer coverings). The covers may reach almost to floor level with a pleated or gathered ‘skirt’ or they may be tailored and fixed under the chair. Closely woven fabrics are preferred for loose covers e.g. chintz, cretonne, etc.
The choice of pattern, colour and texture is as for any other soft furnishings in that the material must be in keeping with the room and the rest of the furnishings. Loose covers are sometimes considered a cheap substitute for re-upholstering but in reality they may cost nearly as much. To protect upholstered furniture from soiling in the most likely places shields for arms and backs are frequently used.

Care and cleaning of loose covers

1. Shake and tidy frequently.


2. Brush or suction clean regularly.


3. Attend to repairs.


4. Have laundered or dry cleaned as required.

CUSHIONS –FILLINGS, SHAPES
Cushions may be used to increase the comfort of chairs and sofas and to bring colour, pattern and texture to the room. They may be shaped to fit the chair or sofa so forming the seat and/or back of the piece of furniture or they may be used loose as scatter cushions. Cushions may be of different shapes and sizes, filled with down, feather, kapok or foam plastic or rubber and covered with variety of materials, matching or contrasting with the material of the chair or sofa. The cover may be fastened in a similar way to loose covers.
Cushions require constant attention because they are often removed from their normal places, and feather ones all too easily become squashed and untidy looking and in need of repair.




Care and cleaning of cushions

1. Shake and tidy frequently.


2. Repair when necessary.


3. Brush or suction clean regularly.


4. Remove covers and wash or dry clean them as required.

BEDSPREADS-TYPES, SIZE, MATERIAL
Bed spreads are used to cover the bed during the day and, removed at night at ‘turn down’ service, folded and put away. The colour and pattern must suit the décor of the room, matching, contrasting or picking up a colour from curtains and carpets. The bedspread is frequently sat on, has parcels on it and may be folded nightly, so the material from which it is made should not crease or snag.

Bedspreads may be fitted or throw-over type and in order that the corners of the latter do not hang too low at the foot of the bed they may be rounded. The throw-over bedspread can be held in place under the pillow, and then carried over it to the back of the bed.
Fitted bedspreads should be exact size of the bed plus bedding and the sides may be quite straight, pleated or frilled to within an inch of the floor. The top of the bedspread can be finished as for the top of the throw-over type or if pillows are removed and put elsewhere during the day, the cover can be made to lie flat on the bed.
In some cases where quilts are no longer used ‘night spreads’ of lightweight materials, or even a third sheet, cover the blankets and are tucked in with them to keep the blankets clean and to give a better appearance to the bed after the bedspread has been removed.

Care and cleaning of bedspreads

1. Attend to repairs.


2. Check for stains and dirty marks.


3. Shake occasionally.


4. Have laundered or dry cleaned when necessary.

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